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But your statement, I am sorry to say, fails to express a similar concern for the conditions that brought about the demonstrations. Martin Luther King Jr. My daughter, who goes to Stuyvesant High School only blocks from the former World Trade Center, thinks we should fly the American flag out our window. Definitely not, I say: the flag stands for jingoism and vengeance and war. It can even be something an individual or a group might say—or a side of yourself, something you once believed but no longer do, or something you partly believe but also doubt. response, reconciling apparently incompatible views. I like to think I have a certain advantage as a teacher of literature because when I was growing up I disliked and feared books.

court controversy, but. This point may come as a shock to you if you have always had the impression that in order to suc- ceed academically you need to play it safe and avoid controversy in your writing, making statements that nobody can possibly disagree with. Even the most sympathetic audiences, after all, tend to feel manipulated by arguments that scapegoat and caricature the other side. On the one hand, some argue that. From this perspective,. On the other hand, however, others argue that. In sum, then, the issue is whether or. For example,. The issue is important because.

Again, none of us is born knowing these moves, especially when it comes to academic writing. Hence the need for this book. on the other hand. It is plagiarism, however, if the words used to fill in the blanks of such formulas are borrowed from others without proper acknowledgment. At first, many of our students complain that using templates will take away their originality and creativity and make them all sound the same. As for the belief that pre-established forms undermine creativity, we think it rests on a very limited vision of what creativity is all about. In our view, the templates in this book will actually help your writing become more original and creative, not less.

After all, even the most creative forms of expression depend on established patterns and structures. Ultimately, then, creativity and originality lie not in the avoidance of established forms but in the imaginative use of them. Furthermore, these templates do not dictate the content of what you say, which can be as original as you can make it, but only suggest a way of formatting how you say it. In addition, once you begin to feel comfortable with the templates in this book, you will be able to improvise creatively on them to fit new situations and purposes and find others in your reading. In other words, the templates offered here are learning tools to get you started, not structures set in stone. Once you get used to using them, you can even dispense with them altogether, for the rhetorical moves they model will be at your fingertips in an unconscious, instinctive way.

Whatever happened to personal responsibility? I tend to sympathize with these portly fast-food patrons, though. Ultimately, this book invites you to become a critical thinker who can enter the types of conversations described eloquently by the philosopher Kenneth Burke in the following widely cited passage. Likening the world of intellectual exchange to a never- ending conversation at a party, Burke writes: You come late. You listen for a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him; another comes to your defense; another aligns himself against you. The hour grows late, you must depart. And you do depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress. Kenneth Burke, The Philosophy of Literary Form What we like about this passage is its suggestion that stating an argument putting in your oar can only be done in conversa- tion with others; that entering the dynamic world of ideas must be done not as isolated individuals but as social beings deeply connected to others.

The central piece of advice in this book—that we listen carefully to others, including those who disagree with us, and then engage with them thoughtfully and respectfully—can help us see beyond our own pet beliefs, which may not be shared by everyone. Exercises 1. If you want, you can use the template below to organize your paragraphs, expanding and modifying it as necessary to fit what you want to say. Specifically, Graff and Birkenstein argue that the types of writing templates they offer. In sum, then, their view is that. In my view, the types of templates that the authors recommend. For instance,. In addition,. Some might object, of course, on the grounds that. Yet I would argue that. Overall, then, I believe —an important point to make given. Disregarding for the moment what Poe says, focus your attention on the phrases she uses to structure what she says italicized here.

On the contrary, many of these supposedly brainwashed people are actu- ally independent thinkers, concerned citizens, and compassionate human beings. X—had done very good work in a number of areas of the discipline. The speaker proceeded to illustrate his thesis by referring extensively and in great detail to various books and articles by Dr. X and by quoting long pas- sages from them. The speaker was obviously both learned and impassioned, but as we listened to his talk we found ourselves somewhat puzzled: the argument—that Dr. Did anyone dispute it? Since the speaker gave no hint of an answer to any of these questions, we could only wonder why he was going on and on about X. It The hypo­ thetical was only after the speaker finished and took questions audience in from the ­audience that we got a clue: in response to the figure on p.

This story illustrates an important lesson: that to give writ- ing the most important thing of all—namely, a point—a writer needs to indicate clearly not only what his or her thesis is, but also what larger conversation that thesis is responding to. Because our speaker failed to mention what others had said about Dr. Perhaps the point was clear to other sociologists in the audience who were more familiar with the debates over Dr. Delaying this explanation for more than one or two paragraphs in a very short essay or blog entry, three or four pages in a longer work, or more than ten or so pages in a book reverses the natural order in which readers process material—and in which writers think and develop ideas. After all, it seems very unlikely that our conference speaker first developed his defense of Dr.

X and only later came across Dr. As someone knowledgeable in his field, the speaker surely encountered the criticisms first and only then was compelled to respond and, as he saw it, set the record straight. This is not to say that you must start with a detailed list of everyone who has written on your subject before you offer your own ideas. Had our conference speaker gone to the opposite extreme and spent most of his talk summarizing Dr. The point is to give your readers a quick preview of what is motivating your argument, not to drown them in details right away. Our civiliza- tion is decadent and our language—so the argument runs—must inevitably share in the general collapse. Modern English. is full of bad habits. which can be avoided if one is willing to take the necessary trouble.

But I say we can. In opening this chapter, for example, we devote the first para- graph to an anecdote about the conference speaker and then move quickly at the start of the second paragraph to the miscon- ception about writing exemplified by the speaker. In the follow- ing opening, from an opinion piece in the New York Times Book Review, Christina Nehring also moves quickly from an anecdote illustrating something she dislikes to her own claim—that book lovers think too highly of themselves. Instead, I mumbled something apologetic and melted into the crowd.

Here are some standard templates that we would have recommended to our conference speaker. These templates are popular because they provide a quick and efficient way to perform one of the most common moves that writers make: challenging widely accepted beliefs, placing them on the examining table, and analyzing their strengths and weaknesses. These are templates that can help you think analytically—to look beyond what others say explicitly and to consider their unstated assumptions, as well as the implications of their views. Furthermore, opening with a summary of a debate can help you explore the issue you are writing about before declar- ing your own view.

In this way, you can use the writing process itself to help you discover where you stand instead of having to commit to a position before you are ready to do so. Here is a basic template for opening with a debate. On the one hand, argues. On the other hand, contends. Others even maintain. My own view is. The cognitive scientist Mark Aronoff uses this kind of template in an essay on the workings of the human brain. One, rationalism, sees the human mind as coming into this world more or less fully formed— preprogrammed, in modern terms. The other, empiricism, sees the mind of the newborn as largely unstructured, a blank slate. In fact, it seems likely that texting has no significant effect on student writing. Where this agreement usually ends, however, is on the question of. The political writer Thomas Frank uses a variation on this move.

That we are a nation divided is an almost universal lament of this bitter election year. However, the exact property that divides us—elemental though it is said to be—remains a matter of some controversy. Their assertion that is contradicted by their claim that. We ourselves use such return sentences at every opportunity in this book to remind you of the view of writing that our book questions—that good writing means making true or smart or logical statements about a given subject with little or no refer- ence to what others say about it. The difference is huge. Your job in this exercise is to provide each argument with such a counterview.

Feel free to use any of the templates in this chapter that you find helpful. Use the tem- plate to structure a passage on a topic of your own choosing. Your first step here should be to find an idea that you support that others not only disagree with but actually find laughable or, as Zinczenko puts it, worthy of a Jay Leno monologue. You might write about one of the topics listed in the previous exercise the environment, gender relations, the meaning of a book or movie or any other topic that interests you. Whatever hap- pened to?

Because writers who make strong claims need to map their claims relative to those of other people, it is important to know how to summarize effectively what those other people say. At the opposite extreme are those who do nothing but summarize. Generally speaking, a summary must at once be true to what the original author says while also emphasizing those aspects of what the author says that interest you, the writer. Strik- ing this delicate balance can be tricky, since it means facing two ways at once: both outward toward the author being summarized and inward toward yourself. on the one hand, put yourself in their shoes To write a really good summary, you must be able to suspend your own beliefs for a time and put yourself in the shoes of someone else.

As a writer, when you play the believing game well, readers should not be able to tell whether you agree or disagree with the ideas you are summarizing. Consider the following summary. I disagree because these companies have to make money. If you review what Zinczenko actually says pp. So eager is this writer to disagree that he not only caricatures what Zinczenko says but also gives the article a hasty, super- ficial reading. Granted, there are many writing situations in which, because of matters of proportion, a one- or two-sentence summary is precisely what you want. Indeed, as writing profes- sor Karen Lunsford whose own research focuses on argument theory points out, it is standard in the natural and social sci- ences to summarize the work of others quickly, in one pithy sentence or phrase, as in the following example.

Several studies Crackle, ; Pop, ; Snap, suggest that these policies are harmless; moreover, other studies Dick, ; Harry, ; Tom, argue that they even have benefits. So, for example, Martin Luther King Jr. Whenever you enter into a conversation with others in your writing, then, it is extremely important that you go back to what those others have said, that you study it very closely, and that you not confuse it with something you already believe. A writer who fails to do this ends up essentially conversing with imaginary others who are really only the products of his or her own biases and preconceptions. Paradoxically, at the same time that summarizing another text requires you to represent fairly what it says, it also requires that your own response exert a quiet influence. A good summary, in other words, has a focus or spin that allows the summary to fit with your own agenda while still being true to the text you are summarizing.

Thus if you are writing in response to the essay by Zinczenko, you should be able to see that an essay on the fast-food industry in general will call for a very different summary than will an essay on parenting, corporate regulation, or warning labels. To set up this argument, you will probably want to compose a summary that highlights what Zinczenko says about the fast- food industry and parents. Consider this sample. With many parents working long hours and unable to supervise what their children eat, Zinczenko claims, children today are easily victimized by the low-cost, calorie-laden foods that the fast-food chains are all too eager to supply. This advice—to summarize authors in light of your own agenda—may seem painfully obvious. But writers often summa- rize a given author on one issue even though their text actually focuses on another.

A typical list summary sounds like this. The author says many different things about his subject. First he says. Then he makes the point that. In addition he says. And then he writes. Also he shows that. And then he says. It may be boring list summaries like this that give summaries in general a bad name and even prompt some instructors to discourage their students from summarizing at all. Not all lists are bad, however. A list can be an excellent way to organize material—but only if, instead of being a mis- cellaneous grab bag, it is organized around a larger argument that informs each item listed. Many well-written arguments are organized in a list format as well. Ungar lists what he sees as seven common misperceptions that discourage college students from majoring in the liberal arts, the first of which begin: Misperception No.

Misperception No. They, more than their more-affluent peers, must focus on something more practical and marketable. Sanford J. Once a summary enters your text, you should think of it as joint property—reflecting not just the source you are summarizing, but your own perspective or take on it. summarizing satirically Thus far in this chapter we have argued that, as a general rule, good summaries require a balance between what someone else has said and your own interests as a writer. Despite our previous comments that well-crafted summaries generally strike a balance between heeding what someone else has said and your own independent interests, the satiric mode can at times be a very effective form of critique because it lets the summarized argument condemn itself without overt edito- rializing by you, the writer.

One such satiric summary can be found in Sanford J. We suspect that the habit of ignoring the action when sum- marizing stems from the mistaken belief we mentioned earlier that writing is about playing it safe and not making waves, a matter of piling up truths and bits of knowledge rather than a dynamic process of doing things to and with other people. Then write a summary of the position that you actually hold on this topic. Give both summaries to a classmate or two, and see if they can tell which position you endorse. Write the first one for an essay arguing that, contrary to what Zinczenko claims, there are inexpensive and convenient alternatives to fast-food restaurants.

Write the second for an essay that questions whether being overweight is a genuine medical problem rather than a problem of cultural stereotypes. Compare your two summaries: though they are about the same article, they should look very different. She makes this claim, and here it is in her exact words. But the main problem with quoting arises when writers assume that quotations speak for themselves. Because the meaning of a quotation is obvious to them, many writers assume that this mean- ing will also be obvious to their readers, when often it is not. In a way, quotations are orphans: words that have been taken from their original contexts and that need to be integrated into their new textual surroundings. This chapter offers two key ways to pro- duce this sort of integration: 1 by choosing quotations wisely, with an eye to how well they support a particular part of your text, and 2 by surrounding every major quotation with a frame explaining whose words they are, what the quotation means, and how the quotation relates to your own text.

quote relevant passages Before you can select appropriate quotations, you need to have a sense of what you want to do with them—that is, how they will support your text at the particular point where you insert them. In fact, sometimes quotations that were initially relevant to your argument, or to a key point in it, become less so as your text changes during the process of writing and revising. It can be somewhat misleading, then, to speak of finding your thesis and finding relevant quotations as two separate steps, one coming after the other. frame every quotation Finding relevant quotations is only part of your job; you also need to present them in a way that makes their relevance and meaning clear to your readers. Since quotations do not speak for themselves, you need to build a frame around them in which you do that speaking for them. Deborah Tannen writes about academia. Following from that is a second assumption that the best way to demonstrate intellectual prowess is to criticize, find fault, and attack.

Another point Tannen makes is that. Since this student fails to introduce the quotation adequately or explain why he finds it worth quoting, readers will have a hard time reconstructing what Tannen argued. First, the student simply gives us the quotation from Tannen without telling us who Tannen is or even indicating that the quoted words are hers. In addition, the student does not explain what he takes Tannen to be saying or how her claims connect with his own. Instead, he simply abandons the quotation in his haste to zoom on to another point. The introductory or lead-in claims should explain who is speaking and set up what the quotation says; the follow-up statements should explain why you consider the quotation to be important and what you take it to say.

When offering such explanations, it is important to use lan- guage that accurately reflects the spirit of the quoted passage. Deborah Tannen, a prominent linguistics professor, complains that academia is too combative. Rather than really listening to others, Tannen insists, academics habitually try to prove one another wrong. can you overanalyze a quotation? But is it possible to overexplain a quotation? After all, not all quotations require the same amount of explan- atory framing, and there are no hard-and-fast rules for knowing how much explanation any quotation needs.

As a general rule, the most explanatory framing is needed for quotations that may be hard for readers to process: quotations that are long and complex, that are filled with details or jargon, or that contain hidden complexities. And yet, though the particular situation usually dictates when and how much to explain a quotation, we will still offer one piece of advice: when in doubt, go for it. It is better to risk being overly explicit about what you take a quotation to mean than to leave the quotation dangling and your readers in doubt. Indeed, we encourage you to provide such explanatory framing even when writing to an audience that you know to be familiar with the author being quoted and able to interpret your quotations on their own. Even in such cases, readers need to see how you interpret the quotation, since words—especially those of controversial figures—can be interpreted in various ways and used to support different, sometimes opposing, agendas.

how not to introduce quotations We want to conclude this chapter by surveying some ways not to introduce quotations. The templates in this book will help you avoid such mis- takes. How has he or she introduced the quota- tion, and what, if anything, has the writer said to explain it and tie it to his or her own text? Have you quoted any sources? If so, how have you integrated the quotation into your own text? How have you intro- duced it? explained what it means? indicated how it relates to your text? Perhaps had I studied the situation longer I could have come up with a similar argument. Although each way of responding is open to endless variation, we focus on these three because readers come to any text needing to learn fairly quickly where the writer stands, and they do this by placing the writer on a mental map consisting of a few familiar options: the writer agrees with those he or she is responding to, disagrees with them, or presents some combination of both agreeing and disagreeing.

Is he for what this other person has said, against it, or what? only three ways to respond? We would argue, however, that the more complex and subtle your argument is, and the more it departs from the conventional ways people think, the more your readers will need to be able to place it on their mental map in order to process the complex details you present. tions you go on to offer as your response unfolds. In fact, there would be no reason to offer an interpretation of a work of literature or art unless you were responding to the interpre- tations or possible interpretations of others. Even when you point out features or qualities of an artistic work that others have not noticed, you are implicitly disagreeing with what those interpreters have said by pointing out that they missed or overlooked something that, in your view, is important. disagree—and explain why Disagreeing may seem like one of the simpler moves a writer can make, and it is often the first thing people associate with critical thinking.

Disagreeing can also be the easiest way to generate an essay: find something you can disagree with in what has been said or might be said about your topic, summarize it, and argue with it. But disagreement in fact poses hidden challenges. You need to do more than simply assert that you disagree with a particular view; you also have to offer persuasive reasons why you disagree. To move the conversation forward and, indeed, to justify your very act of writing , you need to demonstrate that you have something to contribute. Here is an example of such a move, used to open an essay on the state of American schools. On the one hand, she argues. On the other hand, she also says.

For example: X argues for stricter gun control legislation, saying that the crime rate is on the rise and that we need to restrict the circulation of guns. We need to own guns to protect ourselves against criminals. One of these reasons may in fact explain why the conference speaker we described at the start of Chapter 1 avoided mentioning the disagreement he had with other scholars until he was provoked to do so in the discussion that followed his talk. As much as we understand such fears of conflict and have experienced them ourselves, we nevertheless believe it is better to state our disagreements in frank yet considerate ways than to deny them. Nevertheless, disagreements do not need to take the form of personal put-downs. You can single out for criticism only those aspects of what someone else has said that are troubling, and then agree with the rest—although such an approach, as we will see later in this chapter, leads to the somewhat more complicated terrain of both agreeing and disagreeing at the same time.

agree—but with a difference Like disagreeing, agreeing is less simple than it may appear. Just as you need to avoid simply contradicting views you disagree with, you also need to do more than simply echo views you agree with. You may cite some corroborating personal experience, or a situation not mentioned by X that her views help readers understand. In other words, your text can usefully contribute to the conversation simply by pointing out unnoticed implications or explaining something that needs to be better understood. Some writers avoid the practice of agreeing almost as much as others avoid disagreeing.

It is hard to align yourself with one position without at least implicitly positioning yourself against others. These findings join a growing convergence of evidence across the human sciences leading to a revolutionary shift in consciousness. If cooperation, typically associated with altruism and self- sacrifice, sets off the same signals of delight as pleasures commonly associated with hedonism and self-indulgence; if the opposition between selfish and selfless, self vs. relationship biologically makes no sense, then a new paradigm is necessary to reframe the very terms of the conversation. Basically, what Gilligan says could be boiled down to a template. What such templates allow you to do, then, is to agree with one view while challenging another—a move that leads into the domain of agreeing and disagreeing simultaneously. agree and disagree simultaneously This last option is often our favorite way of responding. In this way, we think, Ungar paradoxically strengthens his case.

By admitting that the opposing argument has a point, Ungar bolsters his credibility, presenting himself as a writer willing to acknowledge facts as they present themselves rather than one determined only to cheerlead for his own side. More people should be going to college, not fewer. Yes and no. More people should be getting the basics of a liberal education. But for most students, the places to provide those basics are elementary and middle school. If you want to stress the disagreement end of the spectrum, you would use a template like the one below. Conversely, if you want to stress your agreement more than your disagreement, you would use a template like this one. Other versions include the following. On the one hand, I agree that. This move can be especially useful if you are responding to new or particularly challenging work and are as yet unsure where you stand. But again, as we suggest earlier, whether you are agreeing, disagreeing, or both agreeing and disagreeing, you need to be as clear as pos- sible, and making a frank statement that you are ambivalent is one way to be clear.

is being undecided okay? Nevertheless, writers often have as many concerns about expressing ambivalence as they do about expressing disagree- ment or agreement. Some worry that by expressing ambivalence they will come across as evasive, wishy-washy, or unsure of themselves. Others worry that their ambivalence will end up confusing readers who require decisive, clear-cut conclusions. The truth is that in some cases these worries are legitimate. At times ambivalence can frustrate readers, leaving them with the feeling that you failed in your obligation to offer the guidance they expect from writers. In an academic culture that values complex thought, forthrightly declaring that you have mixed feelings can be impressive, espe- cially after having ruled out the one-dimensional positions on your issue taken by others in the conversation. com, identifying those places where the author agrees with others, disagrees, or both.

This chapter takes up the problem of moving from what they say to what you say without confusing readers about who is saying what. Especially with texts that pres­ ent a true dialogue of perspectives, readers need to be alert to the often subtle markers that indicate whose voice the writer is speaking in. Our national con­ sciousness, as shaped in large part by the media and our political leadership, provides us with a picture of ourselves as a nation of prosperity and opportunity with an ever expanding middle-class life-style. As a result, our class differences are muted and our col­ lective character is homogenized. Yet class divisions are real and arguably the most significant factor in determining both our very being in the world and the nature of the society we live in.

Mantsios also places this opening view in quotation marks to signal that it is not his own. Hence, even before Mantsios has declared his own position in the second para­ graph, readers can get a pretty solid sense of where he probably stands. To see how important such voice markers are, consider what the Mantsios passage looks like if we remove them. We are all middle-class. We are a nation of prosperity and opportunity with an ever expanding middle-class life-style. Class divisions are real and arguably the most significant factor in determining both our very being in the world and the nature of the society we live in. To do so, you can use as voice-identifying devices many of the templates presented in previous chapters. For us, well-supported argu­ ments are grounded in persuasive reasons and evidence, not in the use or nonuse of any particular pronouns.

Furthermore, if you consistently avoid the first person in your writing, you will probably have trouble making the key move addressed in this chapter: differentiating your views from those of others, or even offering your own views in the first place. See for yourself how freely the first person is used by the writers quoted in this book, and by the writers assigned in your courses. I think. On the whole, however, academic writing today, even in the sciences and social sciences, makes use of the first person fairly liberally. Hence, instead of writing: Liberals believe that cultural differences need to be respected.

I have a problem with this view, however. you might write: I have a problem with what liberals call cultural differences. There is a major problem with the liberal doctrine of so-called cultural differences. You can also embed references to something you yourself have previously said. Embedded references like these allow you to economize your train of thought and refer to other perspectives without any major interruption. I thought the author disagreed with this claim. Has she actually been asserting this view all along? Is she actually endorsing it? As you do so, identify those spots where Charlip refers to the views of others and the signal phrases she uses to distinguish her views from theirs. If only that were true, things might be more simple. But in late twentieth-century America, it seems that society is splitting more and more into a plethora of class factions—the working class, the working poor, lower-middle class, upper-middle class, lower uppers, and upper uppers.

In my days as a newspaper reporter, I once asked a sociology pro­ fessor what he thought about the reported shrinking of the middle class. His definition: if you earn thirty thousand dollars a year working in an assembly plant, come home from work, open a beer and watch the game, you are working class; if you earn twenty thousand dollars a year as a school teacher, come home from work to a glass of white wine and PBS, you are middle class. How do we define class? Is it an issue of values, lifestyle, taste? Is it the kind of work you do, your relationship to the means of production? Is it a matter of how much money you earn? Are we allowed to choose? What class do I come from? What class am I in now? As an historian, I seek the answers to these questions in the specificity of my past. Consider the following questions: a. How many perspectives do you engage? What other perspectives might you include? Do you use clear voice-signaling phrases? For the first couple of weeks when she sits down to write, things go relatively well.

This little story contains an important lesson for all writers, experienced and inexperienced alike. It suggests that even though most of us are upset at the idea of someone criticizing our work, such criticisms can actually work to our advantage. Here you are, trying to say something that will hold up, and we want you to tell readers all the negative things someone might say against you? We are urging you to tell readers what others might say against you, but our point is that doing so will actu- ally enhance your credibility, not undermine it. As we argue throughout this book, writing well does not mean piling up uncontroversial truths in a vacuum; it means engaging others in a dialogue or debate—not only by opening your text with a summary of what others have said, as we suggest in Chapter 1, but also by imagining what others might say against your argu- ment as it unfolds. Once you see writing as an act of entering a conversation, you should also see how opposing arguments can work for you rather than against you.

When you entertain a counterargument, you make a kind of preemptive strike, identifying problems with your argument before oth- ers can point them out for you. In addition, by imagining what others might say against your claims, you come across as a generous, broad-minded person who is confident enough to open himself or herself to debate—like the writer in the figure on the following page. You might also leave important ques- tions hanging and concerns about your arguments unaddressed. Finally, if you fail to plant a naysayer in your text, you may find that you have very little to say. Planting a naysayer in your text is a relatively simple move, as you can see by looking at the following passage from a book by the writer Kim Chernin.

At this point I would like to raise certain objections that have been inspired by the skeptic in me. She feels that I have been ignoring some of the most common assumptions we all make about our bod- ies and these she wishes to see addressed. You buy new clothes. You look at yourself more eagerly in the mirror. You feel sexier. Admit it. You like yourself better. Instead, she embraces that voice and writes it into her text. Note too that instead of dispatching this naysaying voice quickly, as many of us would be tempted to do, Chernin stays with it and devotes a full paragraph to it. She feels that I have been ignoring the complexities of the situation. But the ideas that motivate arguments and objections often can—and, where possible, should—be ascribed to a specific ideology or school of thought for example, liberals, Christian fundamentalists, neopragmatists rather than to anonymous anybodies.

To be sure, some people dislike such labels and may even resent having labels applied to themselves. Some feel that labels put individuals in boxes, stereotyping them and glossing over what makes each of us unique. But since the life of ideas, includ- ing many of our most private thoughts, is conducted through groups and types rather than solitary individuals, intellectual exchange requires labels to give definition and serve as a convenient shorthand. If you categorically reject all labels, you give up an important resource and even mislead readers by ­presenting yourself and others as having no connection to ­anyone else.

You also miss an opportunity to generalize the importance and relevance of your work to some larger con- versation. The way to minimize the problem of stereotyping, then, is not to categorically reject labels but to refine and qualify their use, as the following templates demonstrate. templates for introducing objections informally Objections can also be introduced in more informal ways. For instance, you can frame objections in the form of questions. What are the chances of its actually being adopted? Is it always the case, as I have been suggesting, that? I like a couple of cigarettes or a cigar with a drink, and like many other people, I only smoke in bars or nightclubs.

Bartenders who were friends have turned into cops, forcing me outside to shiver in the cold and curse under my breath. Smokers are being demonized and victim- ized all out of proportion. Health con- sciousness is important, but so are pleasure and freedom of choice. This move works well for Jackson, See Chapter 5 but only because he uses quotation marks and other for more advice on voice markers to make clear at every point whose voice using voice markers. he is in. Although it is tempting to give opposing views short shrift, to hurry past them, or even to mock them, doing so is usu- ally counterproductive. We recommend, then, that whenever you entertain objec- tions in your writing, you stay with them for several sentences or even paragraphs and take them as seriously as possible.

Or would he detect a mocking tone or an oversimplifica- tion of his views? There will always be certain objections, to be sure, that you believe do not deserve to be represented, just as there will be objections that seem so unworthy of respect that they inspire ridicule. answer objections Do be aware that when you represent objections successfully, you still need to be able to answer those objections persuasively. After all, when you write objections into a text, you take the risk that readers will find those objections more convincing than the argument you yourself are advancing. In the edito- rial quoted above, for example, Joe Jackson takes the risk that readers will identify more with the anti-smoking view he sum- marizes than with the pro-smoking position he endorses. This is precisely what Benjamin Franklin describes hap- pening to himself in The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin , when he recalls being converted to Deism a religion that exalts reason over spirituality by reading anti-Deist books.

When he encountered the views of Deists being negatively summarized by authors who opposed them, Franklin explains, he ended up finding the Deist position more persuasive. It is good to address objections in your writing, but only if you are able to overcome them. Often the best way to overcome an objection is not to try to refute it completely but to agree with part of it while chal- lenging only the part you dispute. Rather than build for more on agreeing, with your argument into an impenetrable fortress, it is often a difference.

best to make concessions while still standing your ground, as Kim Chernin does in the following response to the counter- argument quoted above. Can I deny these things? No woman who has managed to lose weight would wish to argue with this. Most people feel better about themselves when they become slender. And yet, upon reflection, it seems to me that there is something precarious about this well- being. After all, 98 percent of people who lose weight gain it back. Then, of course, we can no longer bear to look at ourselves in the mirror. Even as she concedes that losing weight feels good in the short run, she argues that in the long run the weight always returns, making the dieter far more miserable. But they exaggerate when they claim that. But on the other hand, I still insist that.

Often the most productive engagements among differing views end with a combined vision that incorporates elements of each one. After all, the goal of writing is not to keep proving that what- ever you initially said is right, but to stretch the limits of your thinking. Some would argue that that is what the academic world is all about. Do it for him. Insert a brief paragraph stating an objection to his argument and then responding to the objection as he might. The United States must declare an end to the war on drugs. It has created a multibillion-dollar black market, enriched organized crime groups and promoted the corruption of government officials throughout the world.

And it has not stemmed the widespread use of illegal drugs. By any rational measure, this war has been a total failure. We must develop public policies on substance abuse that are guided not by moral righteousness or political expediency but by common sense. The United States should immediately decriminal- ize the cultivation and possession of small amounts of marijuana for personal use. We must shift our entire approach to drug abuse from the criminal justice system to the public health system. Congress should appoint an independent commission to study the harm-reduction policies that have been adopted in Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands. The commission should recommend policies for the United States based on one important criterion: what works. Like the rest of American society, our drug policy would greatly benefit from less punishment and more compassion. If not, revise your text to do so. If so, have you anticipated all the likely objections?

Who if anyone have you attributed the objections to? Have you represented the objections fairly? Have you answered them well enough, or do you think you now need to qualify your own argu- ment? Could you use any of the language suggested in this chapter? Does the introduction of a naysayer strengthen your argument? Why, or why not? who cares? Bernini was the best sculptor of the baroque period. All writing is conversational. So what? Why does any of this matter? How many times have you had reason to ask these ques- tions? Regardless of how interesting a topic may be to you as a writer, readers always need to know what is at stake in a text and why they should care.

All too often, however, these ques- tions are left unanswered—mainly because writers and speakers assume that audiences will know the answers already or will figure them out on their own. The problem is not necessarily that the speakers lack a clear, well-focused thesis or that the thesis is inadequately supported with evidence. That this question is so often left unaddressed is unfortunate since the speakers generally could offer interesting, engaging answers. Yet many academics fail to identify these reasons and consequences explicitly in what they say and write. Not everyone can claim to have a cure for cancer or a solution to end poverty. In one sense, the two questions get at the same thing: the relevance or importance of what you are saying. Yet they get at this significance in different ways. Writing in the New York Times, she explains some of the latest research into fat cells.

Scientists used to think body fat and the cells it was made of were pretty much inert, just an oily storage compartment. By referring to these scientists, Grady implicitly acknowledges that her text is part of a larger con- versation and shows who besides herself has an interest in what she says. Within the past few decades research has shown that fat cells act like chemical factories and that body fat is potent stuff: a highly active tissue that secretes hormones and other substances. Though this statement is clear and easy to follow, it lacks any indication that anyone needs to hear it. Okay, one nods while reading this passage, fat is an active, potent thing. But does anyone really care? Who, if anyone, is interested? But recently [or within the past few decades] experts suggest that it can be counterproductive.

Who besides me and a handful of recent researchers has a stake in these claims? At the very least, the researchers who formerly believed should care. To gain greater authority as a writer, it can help to name spe- cific people or groups who have a stake in your claims and to go into some detail about their views. Ultimately, when it came to the nature of fat, the basic assumption was that. In other cases, you might refer to certain people or groups who should care about your claims. However, new research shows. But on closer inspection. Ultimately, such templates help you create a dramatic tension or clash of views in your writing that readers will feel invested in and want to see resolved. Featured All Audio This Just In Grateful Dead Netlabels Old Time Radio 78 RPMs and Cylinder Recordings. Metropolitan Museum Cleveland Museum of Art. Featured All Images This Just In Flickr Commons Occupy Wall Street Flickr Cover Art USGS Maps.

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edu no longer supports Internet Explorer. To browse Academia. edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser. In this way, we hope to help students become active participants in the important conversations of the academic world and the wider public sphere. Carolyne Lee. Zak Lancaster. This dissertation project examines patterns of stance in essays written by high- and low-performing students in two upper-level undergraduate courses, one in political theory and the other in economics. It employs methods of linguistic discourse analysis, drawing largely on Appraisal Theory a subset of Systemic Functional Linguistics , in combination with methods from corpus linguistics and theoretical insights from rhetorical genre studies.

It examines how recurring patterns of stance in students' essays correspond to the goals and assessment criteria for writing in the courses, as revealed through interviews with the instructors and analysis of selected course material. Through this robust set of analytic approaches, the study aims to make explicit patterns of stance in student writing that correlate with high- and low-graded essays and with the disciplinary contexts. The broader aim is to render explicit patterns of interpersonal meanings constructed in students' texts that construe such abstract qualities as critical reasoning, complexity and nuance in argumentation, and control of the discourse—features identified by the instructors as valued in student writing.

The study contributes to the field of composition and rhetoric by pinpointing discursive resources that enable some student writers to construct more discipline-congruent styles of argumentation than others. Specific findings show that, while the two essay assignments require different ways of using language to construct valued stances, the high-performing writers in both contexts more consistently construct a "novice academic" stance while the low-performing writers more consistently construct a "student" stance. The former is marked by the rhetorical qualities of contrastiveness, dialogic control, critical distance, and discoursal alignment, or assimilation of the disciplinary discourse. These findings have implications for instruction in writing in the disciplines WID contexts, specifically in terms of how instructors can refine their metalanguage about writing for discussing stance with students explicitly and in detail.

Birdie Newborn. Anne-Marie Deitering. Juan José Prat Ferrer. WAC and Second-Language Writers: Research Towards Linguistically and Culturally Inclusive Programs and Practices. Rozina Qureshi. Peng Wu. Flower Flower. Redinal Dewanto. Soror Plft. Ronald Barnett , Brenda Leibowitz. Marivic Sumagaysay. Roohullah Nawandish. Celia Thompson. WEI LIU. Zawa Nie. Bahar Zalaand. Danny Nugraha. Matt Warren. Carine CARLET. Miki Mori. Kate Seltzer. Donna Gessell. Log in with Facebook Log in with Google. Remember me on this computer. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

Need an account? Click here to sign up. Download Free PDF. They Say I Say 4th edition pdf. Assem Akb. See Full PDF Download PDF. Related Papers. Word Bytes. Download Free PDF View PDF. Word Bytes Beginning with the Blank Screen. Word Bytes Where 'Word Bytes' Started. Word Bytes Opinionated 'Word Bytes. Word Bytes Controlling the 'Word Bytes' Grammar. Word Bytes Reviewing Books in the Information Society. Word Bytes Appendix Researched Article 'An Integral Part of Democratic Debate? Talk Radio and the Public Sphere. Word Bytes Marketing Your 'Word Bytes. Stance and Reader Positioning in Upper-Level Student Writing in Political Theory and Economics.

Don't Panic: The Procrastinator's Guide to Writing an Effective Term Paper. Academic writing in particular calls upon writers not simply to express their own ideas, but to do so as a response to what others have said. Yet despite this growing consensus that writing is a social, conversational act, helping student writers actually partici- pate in these conversations remains a formidable challenge. This book aims to meet that challenge. Its goal is to demys- tify academic writing by isolating its basic moves, explaining them clearly, and representing them in the form of templates. how this book came to be The original idea for this book grew out of our shared inter- est in democratizing academic culture. First, it grew out of arguments that Gerald Graff has been making throughout his career that schools and colleges need to invite students into the conversations and debates that surround them.

More spe- cifically, it is a practical, hands-on companion to his recent book Clueless in Academe: How Schooling Obscures the Life of the Mind, in which he looks at academic conversations from the perspective of those who find them mysterious and proposes ways in which such mystification can be overcome. Many students, she found, could readily grasp what it meant to support a thesis with evidence, to entertain a counter­argument, to identify a textual contradiction, and ultimately to summarize and respond to challenging arguments, but they often had trouble putting these concepts into practice in their own writing. When Cathy sketched out templates on the board, however, giving her students some of the language and patterns that these sophisticated moves require, their writing—and even their quality of thought—significantly improved.

This book began, then, when we put our ideas together and realized that these templates might have the potential to open up and clarify academic conversation. As we developed a working draft of this book, we began using it in first-year writing courses that we teach at UIC. In class- room exercises and writing assignments, we found that students who otherwise struggled to organize their thoughts, or even to think of something to say, did much better when we provided them with templates like the following.

In other words, they make students more conscious of the rhetorical patterns that are key to academic success but often pass under the classroom radar. In our view, this template represents the deep, underlying structure, the internal DNA as it were, of all effective argument. the exact opposite is happening: the culture is getting more cognitively demanding, not less. I remember the day I became colored. Since reading and writing are deeply recipro- cal activities, students who learn to make the rhetorical moves represented by the templates in this book figure to become more adept at identifying these same moves in the texts they read. And if we are right that effective arguments are always in dialogue with other arguments, then it follows that in order to understand the types of challenging texts assigned in college, students need to identify the views to which those texts are responding. In our experience, students best discover what they want to say not by thinking about a subject in an isolation booth, but by reading texts, listening closely to what other writers say, and looking for an opening through which they can enter the conversation.

In other words, listening closely to others and summarizing what they have to say can help writers generate their own ideas. The templates in this book can be particularly helpful for students who are unsure about what to say, or who have trouble finding enough to say, often because they consider their own beliefs so self-evident that they need not be argued for. What this particular template helps students do is make the seemingly counterintuitive move of questioning their own beliefs, of looking at them from the perspective of those who disagree. Some, for instance, may object that such formulaic devices represent a return to prescriptive forms of instruction that encourage passive learning or lead students to put their writing on automatic pilot.

This is an understandable reaction, we think, to kinds of rote instruction that have indeed encouraged passivity and drained writing of its creativity and dynamic relation to the social world. The trouble is that many students will never learn on their own to make the key intellectual moves that our templates repre- sent. While seasoned writers pick up these moves unconsciously through their reading, many students do not. Consequently, we believe, students need to see these moves represented in the explicit ways that the templates provide. The aim of the templates, then, is not to stifle critical thinking but to be direct with students about the key rhetori- cal moves that it comprises. Since we encourage students to modify and adapt the templates to the particularities of the arguments they are making, using such prefabricated formulas as learning tools need not result in writing and thinking that are themselves formulaic.

Admittedly, no teaching tool can guarantee that students will engage in hard, rigorous thought. What would a naysayer say about my argument? What is my evidence? Do I need to qualify my point? Who cares? In fact, templates have a long and rich history. In many respects, our templates echo this classical rhetorical tradition of imitating established models. As a result of my study,. Templates have even been used in the teaching of personal narrative. What I take away from my own experience with is. As a result, I conclude.

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That to impress your instructors you need to use big words, long sentences, and complex sentence structures? She makes this claim, and here it is in her exact words. Like transitions, however, pointing words need to be used carefully. WAC and Second-Language Writers: Research Towards Linguistically and Culturally Inclusive Programs and Practices Making Stance Explicit for Second Language Writers in the Disciplines: What Faculty Need to Know about the Language of Stancetaking. To effectively connect the parts of your argument and keep it mov- ing forward, be careful not to leap from one idea to a different idea or introduce new ideas cold. In this chapter we have tried to show that the most persuasive writing often doubles back and comments on its own claims in ways that help readers negotiate and process them. Can you connect them in some logical way?

Users of the well-respected Internet Movie Database rate the show 8. If so, how have you integrated the quotation into your own text? Do you use voice markers to distinguish clearly for readers between your views and those of others? Even when you point out features or qualities of an artistic work they say i say 3rd edition pdf download others have not noticed, you are implicitly disagreeing with what those interpreters have said by pointing out that they missed or overlooked something that, in your view, is important. Nevertheless, we urge you to go as far as possible in answering such questions.